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Ⅸ. Conference on Security and Co-Operation Europe Final Act(HELSINKI 1975)
22. CONFERENCE ON SECURITY AND CO-OPERATION IN EUROPE FINAL ACT(HELSINKI 1975)
Contents
Preamble
Questions relating to Security in Europe
1. (a) Declaration on Principles Guiding Relations between Participating States
I. Sovereign equality, respect for the rights inherent in sovereignty
II. Refraining from the threat or use of force
III. Inviolability of frontiers
IV. Territorial integrity of States
V. Peaceful settlement of disputes
VI. Non-intervention in internal affairs
VII. Respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, including the freedom of thought, conscience, religion or belief
VIII. Equal rights and self-determination of peoples
IX. Co-operation among States
X. Fulfilment in good faith of obligations under international law
(b) Matters related to giving effect to certain of the above Principles
2. Document on confidence-building measures and certain aspects of security and disarmament
I. Prior notification of major military manoeuvres
Prior notification of other military manoeuvres
Exchange of observers
Prior notification of major military movements
Other confidence-building measures
II. Questions relating to disarmament
III. General considerations
Co-operation in the Field of Economics, of Science and Technology and of the Environment
1. Commercial Exchanges
General provisions
Business contacts and facilities
Economic and commercial information
Marketing
2. Industrial co-operation and projects of common interest
Industrial co-operation
Projects of common interest
3. Provisions concerning trade and industrial co-operation
Harmonization of standards
Arbitration
Specific bilateral arrangements
4. Science and technology
Possibilities for improving co-operation
Fields of co-operation
Agriculture
Energy
New technologies, rational use of resources
Transport technology
Physics
Chemistry
Meteorology and hydrology
Oceanography
Seismological research
Research on glaciology, permafrost
and problems of life under conditions of cold
Computer, communication and information technologies
Space research
Medicine and public health
Environmental research
Forms and methods of co-operation
5. Environment
Aims of co-operation
Fields of co-operation
Control of air pollution
Water pollution control and fresh water utilization
Protection of the marine environment
Land utilization and soils
Nature conservation and nature reserves
Improvement of environmental conditions in areas
of human settlement
Fundamental research, monitoring, forecasting
and assessment of environmental changes
Legal and administrative measures
Forms and methods of co-operation
6. Co-operation in other areas
Development of transport
Promotion of tourism
Economic and social aspects of migrant labour
Training of personnel
Questions relating to Security and Co-operation in the Mediterranean
Co-operation in Humanitarian and Other Fields
1. Human Contacts
(a) Contacts and regular meetings on the basis of family ties
(b) Reunification of families(Human Contacts continued)
(c) Marriage between citizens of different states
(d) Travel for personal or professional reasons
(e) Improvement of conditions for tourism on an Individual or collective basis
(f) Meetings among young people
(g) Sport
(h) Expansion of contacts
2. Information
(a) Improvement of the circulation of, Access to, and exchange of information
(i) Oral information
(ii) Printed information
(iii) Filmed and broadcast information
(b) Co-operation in the field of information
(c) Improvement of working conditions for journalists
3. Co-operation and Exchanges in the Field of Culture
Extension of relations
Mutual knowledge
Exchanges and dissemination
Access
Contacts and co-operation
Fields and forms of co-operation
National minorities or regional cultures
4. Co-operation and Exchanges in the Field of Education
(a) Extension of relations
(b) Access and exchanges
(c) Science
exact and natural sciences
medicine
the humanities and social sciences
(d) Foreign languages and civilizations
(e) Teaching methods
National minorities or regional cultures
Follow-up to the Conference
About the text of the Helsinki Final Act
Signatures
Co-operation in the Field of Economics, of Science and Technology and of the Environment
The participating States,
Convinced that their efforts to develop cooperation in the fields of trade, industry, science and technology, the environment and other areas of economic activity contribute to the reinforcement of peace and security in Europe and in the world as a whole,
Recognizing that cooperation in these fields would promote economic and social progress and the improvement of the conditions of life,
Aware of the diversity of their economic and social systems,
Reaffirming their will to intensify such cooperation between one another, irrespective of their systems,
Recognizing that such cooperation, with due regard for the different levels of
economic development, can be developed, on the basis of equality and mutual satisfaction of the partners, and of reciprocity permitting, as a whole, an equitable distribution of advantages and obligations of comparable scale, with respect for bilateral and multilateral agreements,
Taking into account the interests of the developing countries throughout the world, including those among the participating countries as long as they are developing from the economic point of view; reaffirming their will to co-operate for the achievement of the aims and objectives established by the appropriate bodies of the United Nations in the pertinent documents concerning development, it being understood that each participating State maintains the positions it has taken on them; giving special attention to the least developed countries
Convinced that the growing world-wide economic interdependence calls for increasing common and effective efforts towards the solution of major world economic problems such as food, energy, commodities, monetary and financial problems, and therefore emphasizes the need for promoting stable and equitable international economic relations, thus contributing to the continuous and diversified economic development of all countries,
Having taken into account the work already undertaken by relevant international organizations and wishing to take advantage of the possibilities offered by these organizations, in particular by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, for giving effect to the provisions of the final documents of the Conference,
Considering that the guidelines and concrete recommendations contained in the following texts are aimed at promoting further development of their mutual economic relations, and convinced that their cooperation in this field should take place in full respect for the principles guiding relations among participating States as set forth in the relevant document,
Have adopted the following:
1. Commercial Exchanges
General provisions
The participating States,
Conscious of the growing role of international trade as one of the most important factors in economic growth and social progress,
Recognizing that trade represents an essential sector of their co-operation, and bearing in mind that the provisions contained in the above preamble apply in particular to this sector,
Considering that the volume and structure of trade among the participating States do not in all cases correspond to the possibilities created by the current level of their economic, scientific and technological development,
are resolved to promote, on the basis of the modalities of their economic cooperation, the expansion of their mutual trade in goods and services, and to ensure conditions favourable to such development;
recognize the beneficial effects which can result for the development of trade from the application of most favoured nation treatment;
will encourage the expansion of trade on as broad a multilateral basis as possible' thereby endeavouring to utilize the various economic and commercial possibilities;
recognize the importance of bilateral and multilateral intergovernmental and other agreements for the long-term development of trade;
note the importance of monetary and financial questions for the development of international trade, and will endeavour to deal with them with a view to contributing to the continuous expansion of trade;
will endeavour to reduce or progressively eliminate all kinds of obstacles to the development of trade;
will foster a steady growth of trade while avoiding as far as possible abrupt fluctuations in their trade;
consider that their trade in various products should be conducted in such a way as not to cause or threaten to cause serious injury - and should the situation arise, market disruption
- in domestic markets for these products and in particular to the detriment. of domestic producers of like or directly competitive products; as regards the concept of market disruption, it is understood that it should not be invoked in a way inconsistent with the relevant provisions of their international agreements; if they resort to safeguard measures, they will do so in conformity with their commitments in this field arising from international agreements to which they are parties and will take account of the interests of the parties directly concerned;
will give due attention to measures for the promotion of trade and the diversification of its structure;
note that the growth and diversification of trade would contribute to widening the possibilities of choice of products;
consider it appropriate to create favourable conditions for the participation of firms, organizations and enterprises in the development of trade.
Business contacts and facilities
The participating States,
Conscious, of the importance of the contribution which an improvement of business contacts, and the accompanying growth of confidence in business relationships, could make to the development of commercial and economic relations,
will take measures further to improve conditions for the expansion of contacts
between representatives of official bodies, of the different organizations, enterprises, firms and banks concerned with foreign trade, in particular, where useful, between sellers and users of products and services, for the purpose of studying commercial possibilities, concluding contracts, ensuring their implementation and providing after-sales services;
will encourage organizations, enterprises and firms concerned with foreign trade to take measures to accelerate the conduct of business negotiations;
will further take measures aimed at improving working conditions of representatives of foreign organizations, enterprises, firms and banks concerned with external trade, particularly as follows:
- by providing the necessary information, including information on legislation and procedures relating to the establishment and operation of permanent representation by the above mentioned bodies;
- by examining as favourably as possible requests for the establishment of permanent representation and of offices for this purpose, including, where appropriate, the opening of joint offices by two or more firms.
- by encouraging the provision, on conditions as favourable as possible and equal for all representatives of the above/mentioned bodies, of hotel accommodation, means of communication, and of other facilities normally required by them, as well as of suitable business and residential premises for purposes of permanent representation;
recognize the importance of such measures to encourage greater participation by small and medium sized firms in trade between participating States.
Economic and commercial information
Marketing
The participating States,
Recognizing the importance of adapting production to the requirements of foreign markets in order to ensure the expansion of international trade,
Conscious of the need of exporters to be as fully familiar as possible with and take account of the requirements of potential users,
will encourage organizations, enterprises and firms concerned with foreign trade to develop further the knowledge and techniques required for effective marketing;
will encourage the improvement of conditions for the implementation of measures to promote trade and to satisfy the needs of users in respect of imported products, in particular through market research and advertising measures as well as, where useful, the establishment of supply facilities, the furnishing of spare parts, the functioning of after sales services, and the training of the necessary local technical personnel;
will encourage international cooperation in the field of trade promotion, including marketing, and the work undertaken on these subjects within the international bodies, in particular the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe.
2. Industrial co-operation and projects of common interest
Industrial co-operation
Considering that industrial co-operation, being motivated by economic considerations, can
- create lasting ties thus strengthening long-term overall economic co-operation,
- contribute to economic growth as well as to the expansion and diversification of international trade and to a wider utilization of modern technology,
- lead to the mutually advantageous utilization of economic complementarities through better use of all factors of production, and
- accelerate the industrial development of all those who take part in such cooperation,
propose to encourage the development of industrial cooperation between the competent organizations, enterprises and firms of their countries;
consider that industrial co-operation may be facilitated by means of intergovernmental and other bilateral and multilateral agreements between the interested parties;
note that in promoting industrial cooperation they should bear in mind the economic structures and the development levels of their countries;
note that industrial cooperation is implemented by means of contracts concluded between competent organizations, enterprises and firms on the basis of economic considerations;
express their willingness to promote measures designed to create favourable
conditions for industrial co-operation;
recognize that industrial co-operation covers a number of forms of economic relations going beyond the framework of conventional trade, and that in concluding contracts on industrial co-operation the partners will determine jointly the appropriate forms and conditions of co-operation, taking into account their mutual interests and capabilities;
recognize further that, if it is in their mutual interest, concrete forms such as the following may be useful for the development of industrial cooperation: joint production and sale, specialization in production and sale, construction, adaptation and modernization of industrial plants, cooperation for the setting up of complete industrial installations with a view to thus obtaining part of the resultant products, mixed companies, exchanges of <<know-how>>, of technical information, of patents and of licences, and joint industrial research within the framework of specific co-operation projects;
recognize that new forms of industrial co-operation can be applied with a view to meeting specific needs;
note the importance of economic, commercial, technical and administrative
information such as to ensure the development of industrial co-operation;
Consider it desirable:
- to improve the quality and the quantity of information relevant to industrial cooperation,
in particular the laws and regulations, including those relating to foreign exchange,
general orientation of national economic plans and programmes as well as programme
priorities and economic conditions of the market; and
- to disseminate as quickly as possible published documentation thereon;
will encourage all forms of exchange of information and communication of experience relevant to industrial co-operation, including through contacts between potential partners and, where appropriate, through joint commissions for economic, industrial, scientific and technical co-operation, national and joint chambers of commerce, and other suitable bodies;
consider it desirable, with a view to expanding industrial co-operation, to encourage the exploration of co-operation possibilities and the implementation of co-operation projects and will take measures to this end, inter alia, by facilitating and increasing all forms of business contacts between competent organizations, enterprises and firms and between their respective qualified personnel;
note that the provisions adopted by the Conference relating to business contacts in the economic and commercial fields also apply to foreign organizations, enterprises and firms engaged in industrial co-operation, taking into account the specific conditions of this cooperation, and will endeavour to ensure, in particular, the existence of appropriate working conditions for personnel engaged in the implementation of co-operation projects;
consider it desirable that proposals for industrial co-operation projects should be sufficiently specific and should contain the necessary economic and technical data, in particular preliminary estimates of the cost of the project. information on the form of cooperation envisaged, and market possibilities, to enable potential partners to proceed with initial studies and to arrive at decisions in the shortest possible time;
will encourage the parties concerned with industrial co-operation to take measures to accelerate the conduct of negotiations for the conclusion of co-operation contracts,
recommend further the continued examination - for example within the framework of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe - of means of improving the provision of information to those concerned on general conditions of industrial co-operation and guidance on the preparation of contracts in this field;
consider it desirable to further improve conditions for the implementation of
industrial co-operation projects, in particular with respect to:
- the protection of the interests of the partners in industrial co-operation projects,
including the legal protection of the various kinds of property involved;
- the consideration, in ways that are compatible with their economic systems, of the needs and possibilities of industrial co-operation within the framework of economic policy and particularly in national economic plans and programmes;
consider it desirable that the partners, when concluding industrial co-operation
contracts, should devote due attention to provisions concerning the extension of the necessary mutual assistance and the provision of the necessary information during the implementation of these contracts, in particular with a view to attaining the required technical level and quality of the products resulting from such cooperation;
recognize the usefulness of an increased participation of small and medium sized firms in industrial co-operation projects.
Projects of common interest
The participating States,
Considering that their economic potential and their natural resources permit, through common efforts, long-term co-operation in the implementation, including at the regional or sub-regional level, of major that these may contribute to the speeding-up of the economic development of the countries participating therein,
Considering it desirable that the competent organizations, enterprises and firms of all countries should be given the possibility of indicating their interest in participating in such projects, and, in case of agreement, of taking part in their implementation,
Noting that the provisions adopted by the Conference relating to industrial cooperation are also applicable to projects of common interest,
regard it as necessary to encourage, where appropriate, the investigation by competent and interested organizations, enterprises and firms of the possibilities for the carrying out of projects of common interest in the fields of energy resources and of the exploitation of raw materials, as well as of transport and communications;
regard it as desirable that organizations, enterprises and firms exploring the possibilities of taking part in projects of common interest exchange with their potential partners, through the appropriate channels, the requisite economic, legal, financial and technical information pertaining to these projects;
consider that the fields of energy resources, in particular, petroleum, natural gas and coal, and the extraction and processing of mineral raw materials, in particular, iron ore and bauxite, are suitable ones for strengthening long-term economic co-operation and for the development of trade which could result;
consider that possibilities for projects of common interest with a view to longterm economic co-operation also exist in the following fields:
- exchanges of electrical energy within Europe with a view to utilizing the capacity of the electrical power stations as rationally as possible;
- co-operation in research for new sources of energy and, in particular, in the field of nuclear energy;
- development of road networks and co-operation aimed at establishing a coherent navigable network in Europe;
- co-operation in research and the perfecting of equipment for multimodal transport operations and for the handling of containers;
recommend that the States interested in projects of common interest should consider under what conditions it would be possible to establish them, and if they so desire, create the necessary conditions for their actual implementation.
3. Provisions concerning trade and industrial co-operation
Harmonization of standards
The participating States,
Recognizing the development of international harmonization of standards and technical regulations and of international co-operation in the field of certification as an important means of eliminating technical obstacles to international trade and industrial cooperation, thereby facilitating their development and increasing productivity,
reaffirm their interest to achieve the widest possible international harmonization of standards and technical regulations,
express their readiness to promote international agreements and other appropriate arrangements on acceptance of certificates of conformity with standards and technical regulations;
consider it desirable to increase international co-operation on standardization, in particular by supporting the activities of intergovernmental and other appropriate organizations in this field.
Arbitration
The participating States,
Considering that the prompt and equitable settlement of disputes which may arise from commercial transactions relating to goods and services and contracts for industrial cooperation would contribute to expanding and facilitating trade and co-operation,
Considering that arbitration is an appropriate means of settling such disputes,
recommend, where appropriate, to organizations, enterprises and firms in their countries, to include arbitration clauses in commercial contracts and industrial co-operation contracts, or in special agreements;
recommend that the provisions on arbitration should provide for arbitration under a mutually acceptable set of arbitration rules, and permit arbitration in a third country, taking into account existing intergovernmental and other agreements in this field.
Specific bilateral arrangements
The participating States,
Conscious of the need to facilitate trade and to promote the application of new forms of industrial co-operation,
will consider favourably the conclusion, in appropriate cases, of specific bilateral agreements concerning various problems of mutual interest in the fields of commercial exchanges and industrial co-operation, in particular with a view to avoiding double taxation and to facilitating the transfer of profits and the return of the value of the assets invested.
4. Science and technology
The participating States,
Convinced that scientific and technological co-operation constitutes an important contribution to the strengthening of security and co-operation among them, in that it assists the effective solution of problems of common interest and the improvement of the conditions of human life,
Considering that in developing such co-operation, it is important to promote the sharing of information and experience, facilitating the study and transfer of scientific and technological achievements, as well as the access to such achievements on a mutually advantageous basis and in fields of co-operation agreed between interested parties,
Considering that it is for the potential partners, i.e. the competent organizations, institutions, enterprises, scientists and technologists of the participating States to determine the opportunities for mutually beneficial co-operation and to develop its details,
Affirming that such co-operation can be developed and implemented bilaterally
and multilaterally at the governmental and non-governmental levels, for example, through intergovernmental and other agreements, international programmes, cooperative projects and commercial channels, while utilizing also various forms of contacts, including direct and individual contacts,
Aware of the need to take measures further to improve scientific and technological co-operation between them,
Possibilities for improving co-operation
Recognize that possibilities exist for further improving scientific and technological co-operation, and to this end, express their intention to remove obstacles to such cooperation, in particular through:
- the improvement of opportunities for the exchange and dissemination of scientific and technological information among the parties interested in scientific and technological research and co-operation including information related to the organization and implementation of such co-operation;
- the expeditious implementation and improvement in organization, including programmes, of international visits of scientists and specialists in connexion with exchanges, conferences and co-operation;
- the wider use of commercial channels and activities for applied scientific and
technological research and for the transfer of achievements obtained in this field while providing information on and protection of intellectual and industrial property rights;
Fields of co-operation
Consider that possibilities to expand co-operation exist within the areas given below as examples, noting that it is for potential partners in the participating countries to identify and develop projects and arrangements of mutual interest and benefit:
Agriculture
Research into new methods and technologies for increasing the productivity of crop cultivation and animal husbandry; the application of chemistry to agriculture; the design, construction and utilization of agricultural machinery; technologies of irrigation and other agricultural land improvement works;
Energy
Research on new technologies and equipment designed in particular to reduce energy consumption and to minimize or eliminate waste; including nuclear, solar and geothermal energy;
New technologies, rational use of resources
Research on new technologies and equipment designed in particular to reduce energy consumption and to minimize or eliminate waste;
Transport technology
Research on the means of transport and the technology applied to the development and operation of international, national and urban transport networks including container transport as well as transport safety;
Physics
Study of problems in high energy physics and plasma physics; research in the field of theoretical and experimental nuclear physics;
Chemistry
Research on problems in electrochemistry and the chemistry of polymers, of natural products, and of metals and alloys, as well as the development of improved chemical technology, especially materials processing; practical application of the latest achievements of chemistry to industry, construction and other sectors of the economy;
Meteorology and hydrology
Meteorological and hydrological research, including methods of collection, evaluation and transmission of data and their utilization for weather forecasting and hydrology forecasting;
Oceanography
Oceanographic research, including the study of air/sea interactions;
Seismological research
Study and forecasting of earthquakes and associated geological changes; development and research of technology of seism-resisting constructions;
Research on glaciology, permafrost and problems of life under conditions of cold
Research on glaciology and permafrost; transportation and construction technologies; human adaptation to climatic extremes and changes in the living conditions of indigenous populations;
Computer, communication and information technologies
Development of computers as well as of telecommunications and information systems; technology associated with computers and telecommunications, including their use for management systems, for production processes, for automation, for the study of economic problems, in scientific research and for the collection, processing and dissemination of information;
Space research
Space exploration and the study of the earth's natural resources and the natural
environment by remote sensing in particular with the assistance of satellites and rocketprobes;
Medicine and public health
Research on cardiovascular, tumour and virus diseases, molecular biology, neurophysiology; development and testing of new drugs; study of contemporary problems of pediatrics, gerontology and the organization and techniques of medical services;
Environmental research
Research on specific scientific and technological problems related to human environment.
Forms and methods of co-operation
Express their view that scientific and technological co-operation should, in particular, employ the following forms and methods:
- exchange and circulation of books, periodicals and other scientific and technological publications and papers among interested organizations, scientific and technological institutions, enterprises and scientists and technologists, as well as participation in international programmes for the abstracting and indexing of publications;
- exchanges and visits as well as other direct contacts and communications among scientists and technologists, on the basis of mutual agreement and other arrangements, for such purposes as consultations, lecturing and conducting research, including the use of laboratories, scientific libraries, and other documentation centres in connexion therewith;
- holding of international and national conferences, symposia, seminars, courses and other meetings of a scientific and technological character, which would include the participation of foreign scientists and technologists;
- joint preparation and implementation of programmes and projects of mutual interest on the basis of consultation and agreement among all parties concerned, including, where possible and appropriate, exchanges of experience and research results, and correlation of research programmes, between scientific and technological research institutions and organizations;
- use of commercial channels and methods for identifying and transferring technological and scientific developments, including the conclusion of mutually beneficial cooperation arrangements between firms and enterprises in fields agreed upon between them and for carrying out, where appropriate, joint research and development programmes and projects;
consider it desirable that periodic exchanges of views and information take place on scientific policy, in particular on general problems of orientation and administration of research and the question of a better use of large-scale scientific and experimental equipment on a co-operative basis;
recommend that, in developing co-operation in the field of science and technology, full use be made of existing practices of bilateral and multilateral cooperation, including that of a regional or sub-regional character, together with the forms and methods of co-operation described in this document;
recommend further that more effective utilization be made of the possibilities and capabilities of existing international organizations, intergovernmental and non-governmental, concerned with science and technology, for improving exchanges of information and experience, as well as for developing other forms of cooperation in fields of common interest, for example:
- in the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, study of possibilities for expanding multilateral co-operation, taking into account models for projects and research used in various international organizations; and for sponsoring conferences, symposia, and study and working groups such as those which would bring together younger scientists and technologists with eminent specialists in their field;
- through their participation in particular international scientific and technological cooperation programmes, including those of UNESCO and other international organizations, pursuit of continuing progress towards the objectives of such programmes, notably those of UNISIST with particular respect to information policy guidance, technical advice, information contributions and data processing.
5. Environment
The participating States,
Affirming that the protection and improvement of the environment, as well as the protection of nature and the rational utilization of its resources in the interests of present and future generations, is one of the tasks of major importance to the well-being of peoples and the economic development of all countries and that many environmental problems, particularly in Europe, can be solved effectively only through close international cooperation,
Acknowledging that each of the participating States, in accordance with the principles of international law, ought to ensure, in a spirit of co-operation, that activities carried out on its territory do not cause degradation of the environment in another State or in areas lying beyond the limits of national jurisdiction,
Considering that the success of any environmental policy presupposes that all
population groups and social forces, aware of their responsibilities, help to protect and improve the environment, which necessitates continued and thorough educative action, particularly with regard to youth.
Affirming that experience has shown that economic development and technological progress must be compatible with the protection of the environment and the preservation of historical and cultural values; that damage to the environment is best avoided by preventive measures; and that the ecological balance must be preserved in the exploitation and management of natural resources,
Aims of co-operation
Agree to the following aims of co-operation, in particular:
- to study, with a view to their solution, those environmental problems which, by their nature, are of a multilateral, bilateral, regional or sub-regional dimension; as well as to encourage the development of an interdisciplinary approach to environmental problems;
- to increase the effectiveness of national and international measures for the protection of the environment, by the comparison and, if appropriate, the harmonization of methods of gathering and analyzing facts, by improving the knowledge of pollution phenomena and rational utilization of natural resources, by the exchange of information, by the harmonization of definitions and the adoption, as far as possible, of a common terminology in the field of the environment;
- to take the necessary measures to bring environmental policies closer together and, where appropriate and possible, to harmonize them;
- to encourage, where possible and appropriate, national and international efforts by their interested organizations, enterprises and firms in the development, production and improvement of equipment designed for monitoring, protecting and enhancing the environment.
Fields of co-operation
To attain these aims, the participating States will make use of every suitable
opportunity to co-operate in the field of environment and, in particular, within the areas described below as examples:
Control of air pollution
Desulphurization of fossil fuels and exhaust gases, pollution control of heavy metals, particles, aerosols, nitrogen oxides, in particular those emitted by transport, power stations, and other industrial plants; systems and methods of observation and control of air pollution and its effects, including long-range transport of air pollutants;
Water pollution control and fresh water utilization
Prevention and control of water pollution, in particular of transboundary rivers and international lakes; techniques for the improvement of the quality of water and further development of ways and means for industrial and municipal sewage effluent purification; methods of assessment of fresh water resources and the improvement of their utilization, in particular by developing methods of production which are less polluting and lead to less consumption of fresh water;
Protection of the marine environment
Protection of the marine environment of participating States, and especially the
Mediterranean Sea, from pollutants emanating from land-based sources and those from ships and other vessels, notably the harmful substances listed in Annexes I and II to the London Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by the Dumping of Wastes and Other Matters; problems of maintaining marine ecological balances and food chains, in particular such problems as may arise from the exploration and exploitation of biological and mineral resources of the seas and the sea-bed;
Land utilization and soils
Problems associated with more effective use of lands, including land amelioration, reclamation and recultivation; control of soil pollution, water and air erosion, as well as other forms of soil degradation; maintaining and increasing the productivity of soils with due regard for the possible negative effects of the application of chemical fertilizers and pesticides;
Nature conservation and nature reserves
Protection of nature and nature reserves; conservation and maintenance of existing genetic resources, especially rare animal and plant species; conservation of natural ecological systems; establishment of nature reserves and other protected landscapes and areas, including their use for research, tourism, recreation and other purposes;
Improvement of environmental conditions in areas of human settlement
Environmental conditions associated with transport, housing, working areas, urban development and planning, water supply and sewage disposal systems; assessment of harmful effects of noise, and noise control methods; collection, treatment and utilization of wastes, including the recovery and recycling of materials; research on substitutes for nonbiodegradable substances;
Fundamental research, monitoring, forecasting and assessment of environmental changes
Study of changes in climate, landscapes and ecological balances under the impact of both natural factors and human activities; forecasting of possible genetic changes in flora and fauna as a result of environmental pollution; harmonization of statistical data, development of scientific concepts and systems of monitoring networks, standardized methods of observation, measurement and assessment of changes in the biosphere; assessment of the effects of environmental pollution levels and. degradation of the environment upon human health; study and development of criteria and standards for various environmental pollutants and regulation regarding production and use of various products;
Legal and administrative measures
Legal and administrative measures for the protection of the environment including procedures for establishing environmental impact assessments.
Forms and methods of co-operation
The participating States will further develop such co-operation by:
- promoting the progressive development, codification and implementation of international law as one means of preserving and enhancing the human environment, including principles and practices, as accepted by them, relating to pollution and other environmental damage caused by activities within the jurisdiction or control of their States affecting other countries and regions;
- supporting and promoting the implementation of relevant international Conventions to which they are parties, in particular those designed to prevent and combat marine and fresh water pollution, recommending States to ratify Conventions which have already been signed, as well as considering possibilities of accepting other appropriate Conventions to which they are not parties at present;
- advocating the inclusion, where appropriate and possible, of the various areas of cooperation into the programmes of work of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, supporting such co-operation within the framework of the Commission and of the United Nations Environment Programme, and taking into account the work of other competent international organizations of which they are members,
- making wider use, in all types of co-operation, of information already available from national and international sources, including internationally agreed criteria, and utilizing the possibilities and capabilities of various competent international organizations.
The participating States agree on the following recommendations on specific measures:
- to develop through international co-operation an extensive programme for the monitoring and evaluation of the long-range transport of air pollutants, starting with sulphur dioxide and with possible extension to other pollutants, and to this end to take into account basic elements of a co-operation programme which were identified by the experts who met in Oslo in December 1974 at the invitation of the Norwegian Institute of Air Research;
- to advocate that within the framework of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe a study be carried out of procedures and relevant experience relating to the activities of Governments in developing the capabilities of their countries to predict adequately environmental consequences of economic activities and technological development.
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